Ottoman Decline Timeline

Ottoman Decline 13

1683 – 1839 Ottoman Decline (1683–1839) The 156 years between the failed siege of Vienna and the Tanzimat reforms are the period in which the Ottoman Empire transforms from the dominant power of the eastern Mediterranean into the 'sick man of Europe' -- Nicholas I of Russia's memorable phrase. The transformation is not immediate or uniform: the empire shows remarkable resilience, recovering territory, defeating enemies and producing capable sultans and grand viziers. But the structural trends are unmistakable: each major war ends in territorial loss; the military gap with European powers widens; the financial system deteriorates; and the subject Christian peoples of the Balkans develop nationalist movements that threaten the empire's territorial integrity.
1683 – 1699 The Great Turkish War -- the retreat from Vienna The Great Turkish War (1683-1699) follows the defeat at Vienna and is the first war in which a coalition of Christian powers systematically strips major territories from the Ottomans. The Holy League (Austria, Poland, Venice, the Papal States, later Russia) advances on multiple fronts: Austria reconquers Hungary and Transylvania; Venice reconquers the Morea (Peloponnese); Poland regains Podolia. The Treaty of Karlowitz (1699) is the first major Ottoman territorial concession in Europe -- the first of many. The war also produces the Ottoman capture of Azov by Russia (1696) under Peter the Great, beginning the long Russo-Ottoman conflict that dominates the 18th and 19th centuries.
1699 Treaty of Karlowitz -- the template for retreat The Treaty of Karlowitz (26 January 1699) establishes the template for the next two centuries of Ottoman diplomacy: military defeat followed by territorial concession followed by partial recovery. Hungary, Transylvania and Slavonia go to Austria; Podolia to Poland; the Morea to Venice; Azov to Russia. For the first time Ottoman delegates negotiate as a defeated power rather than dictating terms. The concept of uti possidetis -- keeping what you hold -- replaces the Ottoman expectation of recovering all lost territory. Karlowitz is psychologically as damaging as militarily: it ends the assumption of Ottoman invincibility.
1703 – 1730 The Tulip Period -- luxury and reform The Tulip Period (Lale Devri, 1718-1730) under Sultan Ahmed III and Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha Nevşehirli is an era of relative peace, cultural flowering and cautious westernisation. The Ottoman elite develops a passion for tulips (the word 'tulip' is derived from Turkish tülbend/turban); elaborate tulip festivals are held in the palace gardens. The first permanent Ottoman embassy is established in Paris (1721); ambassador Yirmisekiz Çelebi Mehmed reports on French institutions, architecture and culture. The first Ottoman printing press (for non-religious works) is established in 1727. The Tulip Period ends abruptly with the Patrona Halil revolt (1730) -- Janissary-led populist uprising against elite westernisation.
1768 – 1774 Russo-Turkish War 1768-1774 -- Catherine the Great advances The Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774 is one of the most consequential in Ottoman history. Catherine the Great's Russia, fighting for the first time as a genuine great power against the Ottomans, sends its Baltic Fleet around Europe into the Mediterranean -- destroying the Ottoman fleet at Çeşme (1770) in a night action using fireships. Russian armies overrun Moldavia, Wallachia and the Crimea. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) cedes the Crimea to Russian influence, gives Russia the right to protect Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire, and opens the Black Sea to Russian shipping. It is the most damaging diplomatic defeat in Ottoman history before the 19th century.
1783 Loss of Crimea -- the first Muslim territory surrendered Russia's formal annexation of the Crimea (8 April 1783) is the first time the Ottoman Empire surrenders a Muslim-majority territory to a non-Muslim power -- a profound psychological blow as much as a strategic one. The Crimean Tatars had been Ottoman vassals since 1475; their khan was appointed by the sultan. Catherine the Great's annexation is facilitated by the Küçük Kaynarca treaty's recognition of nominal Crimean independence (which proves a transitional step to annexation). The loss of the Crimea opens the Black Sea's northern shore to Russia and removes the Ottoman buffer between Russia and the Balkans.
1789 – 1807 Selim III -- the reforming sultan murdered by the Janissaries Selim III (1789-1807) is the first Ottoman sultan to undertake systematic military reform -- creating the Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order), a European-trained infantry corps intended to replace the Janissaries as the empire's primary military force. He modernises the artillery, sends students to Europe, establishes new military schools and creates a new revenue system to fund reform. The Janissaries, who see the New Order as a threat to their privileges, revolt in 1807, abolish the new corps and depose Selim. He is strangled in 1808 when another reforming faction attempts to restore him. Selim's fate demonstrates the central problem of Ottoman reform: the Janissaries will destroy any sultan who threatens them.
1798 – 1801 Napoleon in Egypt -- the empire humiliated Napoleon Bonaparte's Egyptian campaign (1798-1801) is the first European military invasion of core Ottoman territory since the Crusades. Napoleon defeats the Mamluk rulers (who nominally acknowledge Ottoman suzerainty) at the Battle of the Pyramids (21 July 1798) and occupies Egypt. The campaign reveals the Ottoman Empire's inability to defend its Arab provinces against a determined European attack. Nelson's destruction of the French fleet at Aboukir Bay (Battle of the Nile, 1 August 1798) and Ottoman-British pressure force French withdrawal in 1801 -- but the political consequences endure: Egyptian governor Muhammad Ali uses the power vacuum to create a virtually independent Egypt.
1804 – 1817 Serbian uprising -- nationalism begins to fragment the empire The First Serbian Uprising (1804-1813) under Karađorđe (Black George) is the first successful nationalist revolt against Ottoman rule and a template for the national revolts that fragment the empire in the 19th century. Serbia, long subject to particularly brutal Ottoman misgovernment, rises initially against the abusive local Janissary leaders (dahis) rather than Ottoman rule as such -- but the revolt evolves into a national independence movement. Though suppressed in 1813, the Second Serbian Uprising (1815-1817) under Miloš Obrenović achieves de facto autonomy. Serbia becomes fully independent in 1867. The Serbian pattern -- uprising, suppression, partial concession, further uprising, independence -- repeats across the Balkans.
1807 – 1839 Mahmud II -- destroying the Janissaries, beginning modernity Mahmud II (1808-1839) is the most transformative sultan between Suleiman and Ataturk. He patiently consolidates power for 18 years, then in June 1826 destroys the Janissaries in the 'Auspicious Incident' (Vaka-yı Hayriyye) -- surrounding their barracks with loyal artillery and bombarding them into submission; the survivors are hunted down. He abolishes the Janissary corps, creating a new European-trained army (the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediyye). He then westernises the administration, education system and dress (replacing the turban with the fez). His reforms are cut short by his death in 1839 -- but he clears the path for the Tanzimat.
1821 – 1832 Greek War of Independence -- European intervention begins The Greek War of Independence (1821-1832) is the first nationalist revolt to succeed in stripping a major province from the Ottoman Empire with direct European support. The revolt begins in March 1821 under Alexander Ypsilantis in the Danubian Principalities, then spreads to the Peloponnese. The Ottomans nearly suppress it with the help of the Egyptian army of Muhammad Ali -- but the intervention of Britain, France and Russia (who destroy the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet at Navarino, 1827) and Russian military pressure (Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829) force Ottoman recognition of Greek independence (Treaty of London, 1832). The Greek precedent -- European intervention forcing Ottoman territorial concession -- becomes the template for the rest of the century.
1826 The Auspicious Incident -- Janissaries destroyed On 15-16 June 1826, Mahmud II springs his carefully prepared trap. When the Janissaries revolt against the new infantry drill (as expected), Mahmud raises the Prophet's banner (a call for holy war), surrounds the Janissary barracks with loyal artillery and bombards them. Thousands of Janissaries are killed; the survivors are hunted down, their corps abolished, their property confiscated and their memory officially cursed. The Bektashi Sufi order (closely associated with the Janissaries) is suppressed simultaneously. The destruction of the Janissaries removes the greatest obstacle to Ottoman military modernisation -- at a moment (Greek independence war, 1821-1829) when the empire urgently needs a modern army.
1831 – 1840 Muhammad Ali challenges the empire -- Egypt almost wins Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt (1805-1848) is simultaneously the Ottoman Empire's most capable subordinate and its most dangerous internal enemy. Having modernised Egypt on French lines with a conscript army and state-directed economy, he invades Syria (1831) and defeats Ottoman armies repeatedly, advancing to within 250km of Istanbul (1833). Only Russian military intervention (Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi, 1833) saves the empire -- at the cost of giving Russia extensive rights in Ottoman waters. Muhammad Ali attacks again in 1839, destroying the Ottoman army at Nezib. Only coordinated European (British and Austrian) pressure forces his withdrawal, limiting him to hereditary rule of Egypt. The episode demonstrates Ottoman military weakness to the whole world.