3rd Century Timeline: Events, People and History

Events in the 3rd Century 11

753 BC – 476 The Roman Civilisation The Roman civilisation — kingdom, republic and empire — shaped Western law, language, architecture, religion and governance more profoundly than any other ancient civilisation. From the legendary founding of Rome by Romulus in 753 BC to the deposition of the last western emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476 AD, Rome endured for over twelve centuries, governing at its peak an empire of 70 million people stretching from Scotland to Mesopotamia.
300 BC – 1279 Chola dynasty (South India) A great maritime and temple-building power The Cholas of the Tamil south were one of the longest-ruling dynasties in history, rising from the Sangam age to a medieval maritime empire that projected naval power across the Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia. They built magnificent temples such as the Brihadeeswarar at Thanjavur and patronised bronze sculpture and Tamil literature.
300 BC – 300 Yayoi period Rice farming, bronze and iron arrive from the mainland The Yayoi period brought wet-rice cultivation, bronze and iron metallurgy, and the potter's wheel to Japan from Korea and China. These innovations drove population growth and the emergence of stratified society and local chieftaincies — the foundations of the Japanese state.
247 BC – 224 Parthian Empire Persian revival; rival of Rome The Parthian (Arsacid) Empire restored native Iranian rule and became Rome's great rival in the east for nearly five centuries, its famed horse-archers and cataphracts repeatedly checking Roman expansion — most notably annihilating Crassus's legions at Carrhae in 53 BC.
202 BC – 220 Han Dynasty The golden age that defined what it means to be Chinese The Han dynasty ruled for over 400 years and is considered China's first golden age. It consolidated Confucianism as state ideology, expanded the empire into Central Asia, and opened the Silk Road. Paper was invented during the Han period. The ethnic majority of China still call themselves "Han people" after this dynasty. It fell to internal rebellion and warlordism — giving rise to the Three Kingdoms period immortalised in Chinese literature.
212 Edict of Caracalla — citizenship extended In 212 AD, Emperor Caracalla issues the Constitutio Antoniniana, extending Roman citizenship to virtually all free inhabitants of the empire — an estimated 30–35 million people. The motive is likely fiscal: citizens paid inheritance tax. The effect is profound: the distinction between Roman and provincial is abolished; every free man in the empire is now a Roman. A Syrian, a Gaul, an Egyptian and a Spaniard are legally identical. Roman law becomes universal law.
224 – 651 Sasanian Empire — last pre-Islamic empire The longest-lived Persian imperial dynasty Founded by Ardashir I, the Sasanian Empire revived Persian power, made Zoroastrianism the state religion, and ruled as a superpower rivalling Rome and Byzantium for over four centuries. It was a golden age of Persian art, architecture and administration before falling to the Arab Muslim conquest.
235 – 284 Crisis of the Third Century From 235 to 284 AD — 49 years — the Roman Empire nearly collapses. Over 50 emperors claim the throne; most are murdered by their own troops within months. The empire simultaneously faces Persian invasion in the east (Shapur I captures Emperor Valerian in 260 AD — the only Roman emperor ever taken prisoner), Gothic raids across the Danube, plague, economic collapse and the secession of the Gallic Empire (260–274 AD) and Palmyrene Empire (263–273 AD). The currency is debased by 95%; trade collapses; population falls.
260 Emperor Valerian captured by Persia In 260 AD, Emperor Valerian is captured by the Sassanid Persian king Shapur I at the Battle of Edessa — the only Roman emperor ever taken prisoner by a foreign enemy. He dies in captivity, probably in 264 AD. Shapur commemorates the victory with rock-cut reliefs at Naqsh-e Rostam showing Valerian kneeling before him — images that will shock the Mediterranean world for centuries. The catastrophe triggers the final fragmentation of the empire into three competing states.
270 – 275 Aurelian — restorer of the world Lucius Domitius Aurelianus — "Restitutor Orbis" (Restorer of the World) — reunites the fragmented empire in five years (270–275 AD). He defeats the Palmyrene Empire (272 AD), capturing Queen Zenobia, and the Gallic Empire (274 AD). He builds the Aurelian Walls around Rome — still largely standing today — and introduces the cult of Sol Invictus as a unifying state religion. He is murdered by his own officers in 275 AD, but the empire he leaves behind is intact, a remarkable achievement in a century of dissolution.
284 – 305 Diocletian — the great reorganiser Diocletian ends the crisis of the third century by systematically reorganising the empire. He creates the Tetrarchy — four co-emperors (two Augusti and two Caesars) ruling different regions simultaneously. He doubles the size of the army, triples the bureaucracy, reforms taxation and the currency, and fixes prices in the Edict on Maximum Prices (301 AD) — the most ambitious price control in history. He conducts the Great Persecution of Christians (303–311 AD) — the last and worst. He retires voluntarily in 305 AD — the only emperor to do so.